Göbeklitepe or Göbekli Tepe is the oldest known collection of cult structures in the world, located near the village of Örencik[1], approximately 22 km northeast of the provincial center of Şanlıurfa.[2] a common feature of these structures is that 10-12 obelisks in The Shape of a T are lined up in a round plan, and between them are built with a stone wall. In the center of this structure, two obelisks of higher height are placed mutually. Many of these obelisks depict people, hands and arms, various animals and abstract symbols, embossed or carved.[3] the motifs in question have been used too intensively to be an ornament in places. This composition is thought to express a story, a narrative, or a message.[4] bull, wild boar, fox, snake, wild duck and vulture are the most common motifs in animal motifs.[3] it is described as a cult center, not a settlement. It is understood that the cult structures here were built by the last groups of hunters who were close to agriculture and animal husbandry.[5] in other words, Göbekli Tepe is an important cult Center for hunter-gatherer groups that have a highly developed and deepened belief system in the surrounding area.[6] in this case, the earliest use of the region dates back to phase a of the Pottery-free Neolithic (PPN, Pre-Pottery Neolithic) (9,600-7,300 BC), in other words, it is suggested that it dates back at least 11,600 years ago.[3] however, it is not possible to date the earliest activities at Göbekli Tepe, but looking at these monumental structures, it is believed that it has a history dating back to the Paleolithic Age, a few millennia earlier, to the Epipaleolithic.[2] [7] It is understood that the use of Göbekli Tepe as a cult center continued until around 8 thousand BC and was abandoned after these dates, and was not used for other or similar purposes.[8]
All these and the monumental architecture uncovered during the excavations make Göbekli Tepe unique and special. In this context, it was placed on the World Heritage Tentative List by UNESCO in 2011 and placed on the Permanent List in 2018.[9]
The obelisks in question are interpreted as stylized human sculptures. In particular, the human hand and arm motifs found on the body of the Central obelisks of structure D eliminate any doubts about this issue. Therefore, the concept of" obelisk " is used as an auxiliary concept that does not specify a function. Essentially, these"obelisks" are sculpted in a stylized style that depicts the human body in three dimensions.[10]
Location and environment
Some statues and stones unearthed during the excavations here are displayed in the Sanliurfa Museum.[11]
The elevation[12], locally known as ‘Göbekli Tepe visitation’ due to the presence of a visited deposit on the hill, is a 15-meter high hill covering an area of 300x300 meters, on a limestone plateau about 1 km long. In addition to cult structures, there are quarries and workplaces on the plateau.[7][13]
The area where the finds were unearthed is a group of Red Earth elevations up to 150 meters in diameter, with a steep-sided flood bed to the west, extending in a northwest-southeast direction, with slight subsidence between them. Tombs in the two highest hillocks were unearthed.[12]
Looking to the North and east through the hill, the Taurus Mountains and Karaca Mountain foothills, looking to the west, the mountain range separating the Sanliurfa plateau and the Euphrates plain, looking to the south, the Harran plain to the Syrian border is visible. With this location, Göbekli Tepe can see a very wide area, as well as it can be seen from a very wide area.[7] it is likely that this feature had an impact in choosing this place to build cult structures. On the other hand, it is clear that a very high quality stone source is needed for such monumental structures. Indeed, the limestone used in Göbekli Tepe is a fairly hard stone that is not found everywhere. Even today it is considered to be the best quality limestone in the region. Therefore, this is one of the reasons why Göbekli Tepe Plateau was chosen.[14]
It is suggested that T-shaped columns were found on the surface in centers such as the new neighborhood, Karahan, Sefer Tepe and Hamzan Tepe in the Urfa region, and similar architectural elements were discovered during excavations in Nevali Chori, so Göbekli Tepe may be associated with these centers. It is also noted that the columns found in these centers are smaller (1,5-2 meters) than those found in Göbekli Tepe.[15] as a result, it is suggested that Göbekli Tepe may not be the only Faith Center in the Urfa region, and that there are several more faith centers.[16] but the important issue at this point is that the smaller obelisks in other settlements bear similarities to the later layer of Göbekli Tepe.[4]
Research and excavations
Göbekli Tepe was identified in 1963 during the “prehistoric research in Southeastern Anatolia Project” (Prehistoric research in Southeastern Anatolia) conducted by Istanbul University and the University of Chicago.[12] a few hills that did not seem ordinary and natural were covered with thousands of broken lighter debris, which was certainly made by human hands.[17] based on finds collected from the surface of the mound during surface surveys, this is the Biris Cemetery (Epipaleolithic) and Willow Field 1 (Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic), It has been concluded that Willow Field 2 (Neolithic without pottery) may be one of the important settlements of the region, but no other work has been done.[12] the region was first mentioned in Peter Benedict's article "Survey Work in Southeastern Anatolia", published in 1980. But it is still not focused on.[8] later, in 1994, another study was conducted in the region by Klaus Schmidt of the University of Heidelberg. Only then did the monumental characteristic of the site and, accordingly, its archaeological value attract attention.[4]
The excavations were started in 1995 after a surface survey conducted under the direction of the Sanliurfa Museum and under the scientific consultancy of Harald Hauptmann of the German Archaeological Institute (Dai) in Istanbul. Immediately after, excavations were started again under the direction of the Sanliurfa Museum and under the scientific consultancy of Klaus Schmidt. Since 2007, the excavations have been carried out by the Council of Ministers with the status of a stable excavation and again by a professor from the German Archaeological Institute. Dr. It was continued under the direction of Klaus Schmidt.[18] the prehistoric Institute of the German University of Heidelberg also participated in the project.[12] years of detailed excavations have provided reliable scientific results that will allow us to rewrite the Neolithic Revolution and the ground that prepared it.[4]
Stratification
Four layers are given in Göbekli Tepe with excavation works. Top I The layer is surface filling. The other three layers are;
II. A. Layer: angular structures with obelisks (8 thousand-9 thousand BC)
The layer is dated to Neolithic Phase B without Pottery. Obelisk and quadrangular planned structures were uncovered. It has been concluded that the buildings in question are cult structures in the same way due to their similarity to the temple in Nevali Cori, its contemporary. “Lion structure”, which is considered the typical structure of this layer, shows a lion relief on two of the four obelisks.[18][19]
II. B. Layer: Round-Oval structures (considered as intermediate layer Dec.)
The structures of this layer, dated as the transition phase A-B to the Neolithic Age without pottery, were built in a round or oval plan.[18][19]
III. Layer: circular structures with obelisks (9 thousand-10 thousand BC)
This lowest layer, dated to the Neolithic Phase A without pottery, is considered the most important layer of Göbekli Tepe.[18][19]
Klaus Schmidt, who headed the excavation from the beginning, outlined the II. and III. He's talking about the layer. According to Schmidt, III. The layer is the layer represented by structures consisting of 10-12 T-shaped obelisks and round walls enclosing them, and two obelisks located higher and opposite in the center of it, and older. II. The layer, on the other hand, is represented by smaller scale structures with a quadrangular plan, with one or two smaller obelisks-some of which do not have obelisks. III: strata as Neolithic A Without Pottery, II. It places the strata in the early and middle phase of Neolithic B without Pottery.[20] Schmidt, III. 10th century BC millennium, and the newer layer 9 BC. it states that it must be dated to the Millennium.[21] but III. Radiocarbon dating of material taken from yet-to-be-unearthed structures in strata shows that these structures are not exactly contemporary with each other. The earliest date is from structure D. According to these data, structure D 10 BC. it was built in the mid-millennium and abandoned in the late Millennium. The outer wall of structure C appears to have been constructed at a later date than structure D, while structure a appears to have been constructed after both. But it is also accepted that more data is needed to fully confirm this assessment.[22]
Finds
Architecture
During the excavations at Göbekli Tepe, no architectural remains that may be housing were reached. Instead, numerous monumental cult structures have been unearthed. It is suggested that the obelisks used in the structures were cut and processed from the surrounding rocky plateaus in one piece and brought to Göbekli Tepe.[23] Some are 7 meters tall.[14] geophysical surveys show that a total of about 300 obelisks have been used in structures on Göbekli Tepe, including those unearthed so far.[24] there are cut but untreated obelisks in the area and on the surrounding rocky plateaus, there are a number of cavities and scrapes that cannot be understood for what purpose they were made for.[23] on the other hand, the round and oval pits, most of which were collected in the western part of the Plateau, are thought to be a kind of cistern made to collect rainwater. Of these pits, round ones show a depth of 1.20-3.00 meters, while oval ones have a depth of 0.50 meters.[10]
Between the obelisks were mostly built as walls with sculpted stones. On the inner side of the wall is a stone set. In the construction of the wall, pieces of broken obelisks or stones collected and processed from the vicinity were used. 2 cm thick slime mortar was used between the stones.[14] since the obelisks are stylized human sculptures, it can be said that these walls bring people together.[25] but this mortar has caused serious problems. First of all, the erosion caused by rainwater and wind caused damage. On the other hand, it created an easy area to open the cavity for various insects.[14]
III. Layer
III, which gave the most important finds. In the first year of excavations, four structures were unearthed in the layer and named A, b, c and D. In subsequent excavations, three other structures called E, F and G were unearthed.[21] geomagnetic measurements show that there are at least twenty monumental structures in this way.[19] common architectural features were found in these excavated cult structures. The main body of the structures was formed by erecting 10-12 obelisks of large size in a circular plan with certain Araks. The obelisks are joined by a wall and bench constructed of rendered stones. In this way, two walls were built intertwined and a corridor was formed between them. In the center of the innermost circle are two obelisks of larger size, placed opposite.[19] [26] in this way, the Stones planted in the center are free, while those around them are partially buried in the wall and bench row.[19]
Of the discovered structures, the diameter of structures C and D is 30 meters, and the diameter of structure B is 15 meters. Structure A has an oval plan and its diameters are approximately 15 and 10 meters.[23] in the center of these four structures are two limestone obelisks with a height of 4-5 meters (the central obelisks of structure D are about 5.5 meters high) [27] with relief decoration. In the same way, the obelisks on the inner and outer walls with reliefs are about 3-4 meters high, facing the ones in the center, but with a smaller size.[23] the two obelisks in the Centers are in the southeast direction in other structures other than structure F, and in structure F the direction is in the southwest.[28]
This whole group of structures was consciously and rapidly covered with a pile in the Neolithic Age. This pile is small pieces of limestone, the majority of which are lumpy. But among them are stone tools, most of which are made of lighter stones, shredded objects that are clearly out of human hands, such as grinding stones. On the other hand, a large number of broken animal horns and bones were used in this process. Most of the bones were identified as gazelles and wild cattle. Other animal bones are red deer, Onager, wild boar.[29] the most interesting thing is that in this filling, human bones as well as animal bones are found. These are small broken pieces, just like animal bones. Although cannibalism is the first thing that comes to mind, the likelihood of it being a practice of burying the Dead seems closer. The human body undergoing some special treatment after death is a tradition that has been identified many times in the Near East of the Pottery-free Neolithic era.[30]
It is still unknown what purpose and thought the structures were covered with.[31] on the other hand, the structures here have remained intact until today thanks to this masonry filling.[19] from this point of view, modern archaeology owes a lot to this masonry filling. However, the same filling again creates two important difficulties from the point of view of Archaeology. First of all, the loose material of the masonry filling created additional difficulties during the excavation work.[32] the main challenge is the concern that the results of radiocarbon dating may be misleading. Because when this filling is discarded, it seems possible that newer parts are lower and older parts are higher.[33]
A pit with a diameter of about 10 meters in structure C has been known since the beginning of the excavations. During the excavations in this structure, it was determined that the pit in question was "made for the purpose of opening around the central obelisks and then smashing these obelisks, and this purpose was reached to the extent that it would tear the obelisks to pieces, if not completely."[34] [35] so much so that with strong blows to open the pit, the upper part of the east from the central obelisks was torn to pieces and scattered around. However, the hull remained in place. However, in the relief bull figure on the torso, it is seen that there are intense breaks due to the influence of a large fire that was burned. By looking at the pottery fragments found in the area, it is suggested that this pit was opened in a period between the Bronze Age and the Iron Age.[35]
Of these cult structures uncovered by excavations, the bases of those other than structure C, D and e were not made by terrazzo technique, as is usually seen in cult structures dating to the Neolithic era without Pottery in southeastern Anatolia[36]. Their bases were obtained by processing the bedrock in a flat and smooth way. In other structures, the base is made of quenched limestone with terrazzo technique and polished concrete hardness.[37] the central obelisks in structure C were also placed in 50 cm pedestal cavities opened in the bedrock, surrounded by small stones and slime.[38] in structure D, the pedestal cavities of the central obelisks are 15 cm.[39]
However, the most common motifs are not human, but wild animal motifs. The wild animals used in the motifs are very diverse and coincide with the fauna of the period and region. Felines, bull, wild boar, Fox, Pike, duck, Vulture, hyena, gazelle, wild donkey, snake, spider and Scorpion are some of them.[46] in structure A, the snake is mainly present in the reliefs on the obelisks. It is the most commonly used of the 17 animal species included in the descriptions in this structure. Snakes are often seen intertwined like nets.[47] in structure B, the Fox reliefs, especially the two foxes located on the front of the two obelisks in the center, are noteworthy. Structure C is the structure where wild pigs are given weight. This is the case not only in the reliefs on obelisks, but also in sculptures carved from stone. The majority of the Wild Boar sculptures unearthed were removed from this structure. However, no snake motif was used in the obelisks of this structure. Only a single snake relief is located on one of the horizontal stone slabs in the Southern Section. In structure d, There is a wide variety of figures such as wild pigs, wild oxen, gazelles, wild donkeys, cranes, storks, ibis, ducks and a feline, but snakes and foxes weigh.[48]
The excavator, Klaus Schmidt, relief or sculpture, which are seen as these animals, played an important role in the daily lives of people, whether they're made for a mythological based on the expression suggests.[49] on the other hand, one notable issue is that in all these animal motifs, all mammals are depicted as men.[46] the female is almost never seen in both human and animal motifs. There is only one exception to the motifs that have emerged to date. A stone slab located between the obelisks, described as a lion column, depicts a naked woman.[49]
A very interesting example of the reliefs on the obelisks is the composition on the obelisks numbered XXV. One of the reliefs is a stylized human relief depicting the facade. The head part of the figure, which is expressed to give a petrified image, is rendered as a facial expression similar to the skull. When the pieces of the obelisk are put together, a small animal figure of 10 cm is located at a distance of 25 cm from the human motif. The animal, which appears to be a dog, has four legs, a tail that is raised up and curled towards the torso.[50]
II. Layer
II. Circular planned structures are not visible in strata, instead they have been switched to quadrangular planned structures. However, III. T-shaped obelisks, which are one of the main architectural elements of the cult structures in Tabaka, continued to be used. The structures in this layer are also mostly cult structures. But just as the size of the structures has decreased, obelisks have decreased in number and decreased in size. III. The average height of obelisks in strata is 3.5 meters, while II. It is 1.5 meters in strata.[14]
Small finds
A very large part of the small finds found during the excavations, other than the architecture, are stone tools used by those who worked here. Almost all of them are tools made of lighter stone. Obsidian stone tools are an exception.[51] the source of Obsidian used in these tools is mostly seen as Bingöl A, B and Göllüdağ (Cappadocia).[52] the fact that the stones used in these tools are from Cappadocia at a distance of 500 km, from Lake Van at a distance of 250 km, and from Northeastern Anatolia at a distance of 500 km constitutes a completely different puzzle.[53] apart from stone tools, materials carved from limestone and Basalt were also recovered. These are mostly stone vessels, stone beads, small figurines, grinding stones and pestles. Of other small finds, flat axes were made of nephrite and amphiolite, and jewelry was made of Serpentine.[51]
Apart from stone tools, many sculptures have been removed. Some of them are human heads of ordinary size made of limestone. The fractures suggest that they were severed from the original sculptures.[47] apart from the sculptures, one notable find is a "totem" - like artifact unearthed during the 2011 excavations. Height 1.87 meters, width 38 cm. there are Composite compositions and figures on the totem, carved from limestone.[54]
Other finds
Einkorn grains of wild wheat species were found in the study of the extracted soil. No evidence of domesticated species of grain has yet been found.[55] other plant remains identified are only wild species of almonds and peanuts.[56] finds of animal bones belong to many different animal species. Among them, the fauna of the Tigris basin, such as gazelles, wild cattle, and toy birds, are the most common. Despite this diversity, there are no findings of domesticated species.[55]
Human skull bone finds
Human bones were found fragmentary. Studies conducted in 2017 revealed that most of these bones belong to skull fragments[57]. Morphological studies of human skull bone fragments have been able to separate the bones of three different individuals in these bone fragments. There is a possibility that one of these three different individuals is a woman. The sex of the other two skulls has not been identified. The skulls belong to individuals between the ages of 20-50. Detailed studies have shown that four different processes are performed on these Skull Bones: stripping, cutting, drilling and painting. When these bone fragments belonging to the human skull were put together in accordance with the model of the skull, it was found that it carried traces that could be hung from above by rope.[57][58]
Reviews and reviews
Until the excavations at Göbekli Tepe, the scientific world interpreted hunter-gatherer communities, which were thought to be organized into nomadic small groups, in fairly simple standards. However, emerging from the excavations a monumental cult center sizes as architecture, large stone sculpture, symbolic motifs and stylized recreations, at least in this region show that the communities must have a social structure quite sophisticated and versatile. All these finds unearthed at Göbekli Tepe reveal the existence of Organizational Development, personal artistic skills and ritual impulses, a kind of understanding and search of art in bringing together crowd groups to carry out such activities.[8] in light of these findings, the scientific world has to review the prevailing views on the sociocultural structure of hunter-gatherer communities.
Its results also led to a change in generally accepted views on symbolism. The traditional view of Archaeology on this issue is that only the agrarian revolution (see agrarian revolution) can be found. The Neolithic Revolution) provided communities with abundant and safe food sources and time, so that they could develop a monumental architecture and a rich symbolic narrative. However, it is understood that those who built Göbekli Tepe are not agricultural communities.[59] the scientific world recognized that hunter-gatherer groups were small units, that they had to struggle to provide food every day, and that they could only save that day.[60] building such cult structures and using these centers for their purposes undoubtedly requires attracting a large group of people from hunting and gathering, albeit for a while.[59] head of excavation Klaus Schmidt and his team cut and process obelisks weighing tons from rocks, they believe that at least 500 people must have worked to bring it to Göbekli Tepe and build the structures, traveling a distance of close to half a kilometer.[60] first of all, these people need to be fed. Given this situation, it is suggested that the need to provide the nutrients that these people need Forces these communities to explore agriculture.[59] [61] indeed III. In the filling stack, which is used to cover the layer structures later, there are large amounts of animal bones that reach large numbers. The number of animal bone fragments found exceeds 100 thousand.[24] this indicates that a lot of meat is consumed in Göbekli Tepe. In addition to meeting the needs of employees, this meat consumption may have met the needs of people from the environment, at feasts held in rituals held here, or even thought to have been used in sacrificial ceremonies.[24] this has undoubtedly led people to seek broader food sources.[6] all this is expressed in the thesis of archaeologist Ian Hodder that sociocultural changes took place before agriculture.[59] in this context, In light of the findings of Göbekli Tepe, it has been questioned that the core region of the Neolithic Revolution may have been the southern foothills of the Taurus Mountains rather than the Levant.[59]
Another issue that archaeologists focus on is how the extremely complex organization required to build these structures can be provided by hunter-gatherer communities. Harald Hauptmann of the German Archaeological Institute suggests that this organization was led by "religious" leaders. In this case, it is necessary to recognize that an" elite " stratification has emerged in these societies.[4] [60] Klaus Schmidt also states that the communities that built Göbekli Tepe were a stratified society.[25] however, the prevailing view in the scientific world up to Göbekli Tepe was that complex religious practices and organization arose only in communities where agriculture was the dominant livelihood style.[60] but Göbekli Tepe forces this approach to be questioned. Indeed, the labor force that will reveal such monumental structures will be based on a deep-rooted history of faith, taking them from hunter-gatherer groups in the surrounding area.[61]
On the other hand, there is a skill that attracts attention, especially in animal reliefs. In a different expression, there is a stylization that can be called Art. It is seen as works" made by someone who knows this style, out of the hands of an expert artist." Therefore, it is obvious that this art style must have a long history.[62]
On the other hand, similar symbols found on Göbekli Tepe, but on a smaller scale, were discovered during archaeological excavations in a region spanning northern Iraq and Syria. Based on these data, it is suggested that Göbekli Tepe was a center of cultural interaction in the Neolithic period.[4]
Editing and Security
Göbekli Tepe is under the protection of the Law No. 2863 on the protection of cultural and natural assets. Decision No. 422 of 27.09.2005 of the Directorate of the Regional Council for the protection of cultural assets of Diyarbakir. It is registered as a grade archaeological site.[63]
In the last few years of excavations carried out at Göbekli Tepe, studies have been developed aimed at preserving and exhibiting the structures and the region as revealed.[64] the walls and obelisks are protected by fabric, sifted soil, wooden construction and wire mesh lines.[65] but still, the threat of long-term looting and external environmental conditions requires special protection of structures and archaeological artifacts here. As an answer to this requirement, the Global Heritage Fund announced in 2010 that a multi-year study program will be conducted for the conservation of Göbekli Tepe. It is envisaged that the work in this direction will be carried out in cooperation with the Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey, the municipality of Sanliurfa, the German Archaeological Institute and the German Research Fund. I intended this entry in the excavated structures and the creation of adequate arrangements for the management of the environment, appropriate next to the determination of a protection plan, a protection cover to make sure of works to be exhibited is to be made of protected from the weather and make necessary attempts to support it.[2] in this context, it is planned to build the facilities, transportation lines and parking spaces, visitor areas required for the project team, and to develop tourism infrastructure in a broad sense as required by the situation.[66]
Post a Comment